Property is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a person or jointly by a group of people. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property has the right to consume, sell, rent, mortgage, transfer, exchange or destroy it, or to exclude others from doing these things. Important widely recognized types of property include real property (the combination of land and any improvements to or on the land), personal property (physical possessions belonging to a person), private property (property owned by legal persons or business entities), public property (state owned or publicly owned and available possessions) and intellectual property (exclusive rights over artistic creations, inventions, etc.), although the latter is not always as widely recognized or enforced. A title, or a right of ownership, establishes the relation between the property and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the property as the owner sees fit. Some philosophers assert that property rights arise from social convention. Others find origins for them in morality or natural law.

Use of the term

Various scholarly disciplines (such as law, economics, anthropology or sociology) may treat the concept more systematically, but definitions vary within and between fields. Scholars in the social sciences frequently conceive of property as a bundle of rights. They stress that property is not a relationship between people and things, but a relationship between people ''with regard to'' things.

Property is usually thought of as being defined and protected by the local sovereignty. Ownership, however, does not necessarily equate with sovereignty. If ownership gave supreme authority, it would be sovereignty, not ownership. These are two different concepts.

''Public property'' is any property that is controlled by a state or by a whole community. ''Private property'' is any property that is not public property. Private property may be under the control of a single person or by a group of persons jointly.

General characteristics

Modern property rights are based on conceptions of owners and possession as belonging to legal persons, even if the legal person is not a natural person. In most countries, corporations, for example, have legal rights similar to those of citizens. Therefore, the corporation is a juristic person or artificial legal entity, under a concept that some refer to as "corporate personhood".

Property rights are protected in the current laws of most states, usually in their constitution or in a bill of rights. Protection is also prescribed in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 17, and in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), Protocol 1.

Traditional principles of property rights include: # control of the use of the property # the right to any benefit from the property (examples: mining rights and rent) # a right to transfer or sell the property # a right to exclude others from the property.

Traditional property rights do not include: # uses that unreasonably interfere with the property rights of another private party (the right of quiet enjoyment) [See Nuisance] # uses that unreasonably interfere with public property rights, including uses that interfere with public health, safety, peace or convenience. [See Public Nuisance, Police Power]

Not every person or entity with an interest in a given piece of property may be able to exercise all possible property rights. For example, as a lessee of a particular piece of property, you may not sell the property, because a tenant is only in possession and does not have title to transfer. Similarly, while you are a lessee, the owner cannot use their right to exclude to keep you from the property, or, if they do, you may be entitled to stop paying rent or sue for access.

Further, property may be held in a number of forms, such as through joint ownership, community property, sole ownership or lease. These different types of ownership may complicate an owner's ability to exercise property rights unilaterally. For example, if two people own a single piece of land as joint tenants then, depending on the law in the jurisdiction, each may have limited recourse for the actions of the other. For example, one of the owners might sell their interest in the property to a stranger whom the other owner does not particularly like.

Legal systems have evolved to cover transactions and disputes that arise over the possession, use, transfer, and disposal of property, most particularly involving contracts. Positive law defines such rights, and the judiciary is used to adjudicate and to enforce property rights.

According to Adam Smith, the expectation of profit from "improving one's stock of capital" rests on private property rights. It is an assumption central to capitalism that property rights encourage their holders to develop the property, generate wealth, and efficiently allocate resources based on the operation of markets. From this has evolved the modern conception of property as a right enforced by positive law, in the expectation that this will produce more wealth and better standards of living.

In his text ''The Common Law'', Oliver Wendell Holmes describes property as having two fundamental aspects. The first is possession, which can be defined as control over a resource based on the practical inability of another to contradict the ends of the possessor. The second is title, which is the expectation that others will recognize rights to control resource, even when it is not in possession. He elaborates the differences between these two concepts, and proposes a history of how they came to be attached to persons, as opposed to families or entities such as the church.

Classical liberals, Objectivists, and related traditions

: Most thinkers from these traditions subscribe to the labor theory of property. They hold that you own your own life, and it follows that you must own the products of that life, and that those products can be traded in free exchange with others.

:: "Every man has a property in his own person. This nobody has a right to, but himself." (John Locke, ''Second Treatise on Civil Government'')

:: "The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property." (John Locke, ''Second Treatise on Civil Government'')

:: "Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place." (Frédéric Bastiat, ''The Law'')

Socialism's fundamental principles are centered on a critique of this concept, stating, among other things, that the cost of defending property is higher than the returns from private property ownership, and that, even when property rights encourage their holders to develop their property or generate wealth, they do so only for their own benefit, which may not coincide with benefit to other people or to society at large.

Libertarian socialism generally accepts property rights, but with a short abandonment period. In other words, a person must make (more or less) continuous use of the item or else lose ownership rights. This is usually referred to as "possession property" or "usufruct". Thus, in this usufruct system, absentee ownership is illegitimate and workers own the machines or other equipment that they work with.

Communism argues that only collective ownership of the means of production through a polity (though not necessarily a state) will assure the minimization of unequal or unjust outcomes and the maximization of benefits, and that therefore private ownership of capital should be abolished.

Both communism and some kinds of socialism have also upheld the notion that private ownership of capital is inherently illegitimate. This argument centers mainly on the idea that private ownership of capital always benefits one class over another, giving rise to domination through the use of this privately owned capital. Communists are not opposed to personal property that is "hard-won, self-acquired, self-earned" (Communist Manifesto) by members of the proletariat. Both socialism and communism are careful to make the distinction between private ownership of capital (land, factories, resources, etc...) and private property (homes, material objects, and so forth).

Theories of property

There exist many theories. One is the relatively rare first possession theory of property, where ownership of something is seen as justified simply by someone seizing something before someone else does. Perhaps one of the most popular, is the natural rights definition of property rights as advanced by John Locke. Locke advanced the theory that when one mixes one’s labor with nature, one gains a relationship with that part of nature with which the labor is mixed, subject to the limitation that there should be "enough, and as good, left in common for others."

From the RERUM NOVARUM, Pope Leo XIII wrote "It is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain property, and thereafter to hold it as his very own."

Anthropology studies the diverse systems of ownership, rights of use and transfer, and possession under the term "theories of property." Western legal theory is based, as mentioned, on the owner of property being a legal person. However, not all property systems are founded on this basis.

In every culture studied ownership and possession are the subject of custom and regulation, and "law" where the term can meaningfully be applied. Many tribal cultures balance individual ownership with the laws of collective groups: tribes, families, associations and nations. For example the 1839 Cherokee Constitution frames the issue in these terms:

Communal property systems describe ownership as belonging to the entire social and political unit. Such arrangements can under certain conditions erode to open access resources. This development has been critiqued by the tragedy of the commons.

Corporate systems describe ownership as being attached to an identifiable group with an identifiable responsible individual. The Roman property law was based on such a corporate system.

Different societies may have different theories of property for differing types of ownership. Pauline Peters argued that property systems are not isolable from the social fabric, and notions of property may not be stated as such, but instead may be framed in negative terms: for example the taboo system among Polynesian peoples.

Property in philosophy

In medieval and Renaissance Europe the term "property" essentially referred to land. Much rethinking has come to be regarded as only a special case of the property genus. This rethinking was inspired by at least three broad features of early modern Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to prohibit interest (then called "usury"), and the development of centralized national monarchies.

Ancient philosophy

Urukagina, the king of the Sumerian city-state Lagash, established the first laws that forbade compelling the sale of property.

The Ten Commandments shown in Exodus 20:2-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21 stated that the Israelites were not to steal, a blanket early protection of private property.

Aristotle, in ''Politics,'' advocates "private property" He argues that self-interest leads to neglect of the commons. "[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual."

In addition he says that when property is common, there are natural problems that arise due to differences in labor: "If they do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property." (''Politics, 1261b34'')

Pre-industrial English philosophy

Thomas Hobbes (17th century)

The principal writings of Thomas Hobbes appeared between 1640 and 1651—during and immediately following the war between forces loyal to King Charles I and those loyal to Parliament. In his own words, Hobbes' reflection began with the idea of "giving to every man his own," a phrase he drew from the writings of Cicero. But he wondered: How can anybody call anything his own? He concluded: My own can only truly be mine if there is one unambiguously strongest power in the realm, and that power treats it as mine, protecting its status as such.

James Harrington (17th century)

A contemporary of Hobbes, James Harrington, reacted differently to the same tumult; he considered property natural but not inevitable. The author of 'Oceana', he may have been the first political theorist to postulate that political power is a consequence, not the cause, of the distribution of property. He said that the worst possible situation is one in which the commoners have half a nation's property, with crown and nobility holding the other half—a circumstance fraught with instability and violence. A much better situation (a stable republic) will exist once the commoners own most property, he suggested.

In later years, the ranks of Harrington's admirers included American revolutionary and founder John Adams.

Robert Filmer (17th century)

Another member of the Hobbes/Harrington generation, Sir Robert Filmer, reached conclusions much like Hobbes', but through Biblical exegesis. Filmer said that the institution of kingship is analogous to that of fatherhood, that subjects are but children, whether obedient or unruly, and that property rights are akin to the household goods that a father may dole out among his children—his to take back and dispose of according to his pleasure.

John Locke (17th century)

In the following generation, John Locke sought to answer Filmer, creating a rationale for a balanced constitution in which the monarch had a part to play, but not an overwhelming part. Since Filmer's views essentially require that the Stuart family be uniquely descended from the patriarchs of the Bible, and since even in the late 17th century that was a difficult view to uphold, Locke attacked Filmer's views in his First Treatise on Government, freeing him to set out his own views in the Second Treatise on Civil Government. Therein, Locke imagined a pre-social world, the unhappy residents of which create a social contract. They would, he allowed, create a monarchy, but its task would be to execute the will of an elected legislature.

"To this end" he wrote, meaning the end of their own long life and peace, "it is that men give up all their natural power to the society they enter into, and the community put the legislative power into such hands as they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be governed by declared laws, or else their peace, quiet, and property will still be at the same uncertainty as it was in the state of nature." Even when it keeps to proper legislative form, though, Locke held that there are limits to what a government established by such a contract might rightly do.

"It cannot be supposed that [the hypothetical contractors] they should intend, had they a power so to do, to give any one or more an absolute arbitrary power over their persons and estates, and put a force into the magistrate's hand to execute his unlimited will arbitrarily upon them; this were to put themselves into a worse condition than the state of nature, wherein they had a liberty to defend their right against the injuries of others, and were upon equal terms of force to maintain it, whether invaded by a single man or many in combination. Whereas by supposing they have given up themselves to the absolute arbitrary power and will of a legislator, they have disarmed themselves, and armed him to make a prey of them when he pleases..."

Note that both "persons ''and'' estates" are to be protected from the arbitrary power of any magistrate, inclusive of the "power and will of a legislator." In Lockean terms, depredations against an estate are just as plausible a justification for resistance and revolution as are those against persons. In neither case are subjects required to allow themselves to become prey.

To explain the ownership of property Locke advanced a labor theory of property.

William Blackstone (18th century)

In the 1760s, William Blackstone sought to codify the English common law. In his famous ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'' he wrote that "every wanton and causeless restraint of the will of the subject, whether produced by a monarch, a nobility, or a popular assembly is a degree of tyranny."

How should such tyranny be prevented or resisted? Through property rights, Blackstone thought, which is why he emphasized that indemnification must be awarded a non-consenting owner whose property is taken by eminent domain, and that a property owner is protected against physical invasion of his property by the laws of trespass and nuisance. Indeed, he wrote that a landowner is free to kill any stranger on his property between dusk and dawn, even an agent of the King, since it isn't reasonable to expect him to recognize the King's agents in the dark.

David Hume (18th century)

In contrast to the figures discussed in this section thus far, David Hume lived a relatively quiet life that had settled down to a relatively stable social and political structure. He lived the life of a solitary writer until 1763 when, at 52 years of age, he went off to Paris to work at the British embassy.

In contrast, one might think, to his outrage-generating works on religion and his skeptical views in epistemology, Hume's views on law and property were quite conservative.

He did not believe in hypothetical contracts, or in the love of mankind in general, and sought to ground politics upon actual human beings as one knows them. "In general," he wrote, "it may be affirmed that there is no such passion in human mind, as the love of mankind, merely as such, independent of personal qualities, or services, or of relation to ourselves." Existing customs should not lightly be disregarded, because they have come to be what they are as a result of human nature. With this endorsement of custom comes an endorsement of existing governments, because he conceived of the two as complementary: "A regard for liberty, though a laudable passion, ought commonly to be subordinate to a reverence for established government."

These views led to a view on property rights that might today be described as legal positivism. There are property rights because of and to the extent that the existing law, supported by social customs, secure them. He offered some practical home-spun advice on the general subject, though, as when he referred to avarice as "the spur of industry," and expressed concern about excessive levels of taxation, which "destroy industry, by engendering despair."

Critique and response

By the mid 19th century, the industrial revolution had transformed England and had begun in France. The established conception of what constitutes property expanded beyond land to encompass scarce goods in general. In France, the revolution of the 1790s had led to large-scale confiscation of land formerly owned by church and king. The restoration of the monarchy led to claims by those dispossessed to have their former lands returned. Furthermore, the labor theory of value popularized by classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo were utilized by a new ideology called socialism to critique the relations of property to other economic issues, such as profit, rent, interest, and wage-labor. Thus, property was no longer an esoteric philosophical question, but a political issue of substantial concern.

Charles Comte – legitimate origin of property

Charles Comte, in ''Traité de la propriété'' (1834), attempted to justify the legitimacy of private property in response to the Bourbon Restoration. According to David Hart, Comte had three main points: "firstly, that interference by the state over the centuries in property ownership has had dire consequences for justice as well as for economic productivity; secondly, that property is legitimate when it emerges in such a way as not to harm anyone; and thirdly, that historically some, but by no means all, property which has evolved has done so legitimately, with the implication that the present distribution of property is a complex mixture of legitimately and illegitimately held titles." (''The Radical Liberalism of Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer''

Comte, as Proudhon later did, rejected Roman legal tradition with its toleration of slavery. He posited a communal "national" property consisting of non-scarce goods, such as land in ancient hunter-gatherer societies. Since agriculture was so much more efficient than hunting and gathering, private property appropriated by someone for farming left remaining hunter-gatherers with more land per person, and hence did not harm them. Thus this type of land appropriation did not violate the Lockean proviso – there was "still enough, and as good left." Comte's analysis would be used by later theorists in response to the socialist critique on property.

Pierre Proudhon – property is theft

In his 1849 treatise ''What is Property?'', Pierre Proudhon answers with "Property is theft!" In natural resources, he sees two types of property, ''de jure'' property (legal title) and ''de facto'' property (physical possession), and argues that the former is illegitimate. Proudhon's conclusion is that "property, to be just and possible, must necessarily have equality for its condition."

His analysis of the product of labor upon natural resources as property (usufruct) is more nuanced. He asserts that land itself cannot be property, yet it should be held by individual possessors as stewards of mankind with the product of labor being the property of the producer. Proudhon reasoned that any wealth gained without labor was stolen from those who labored to create that wealth. Even a voluntary contract to surrender the product of labor to an employer was theft, according to Proudhon, since the controller of natural resources had no moral right to charge others for the use of that which he did not labor to create and therefore did not own.

Proudhon's theory of property greatly influenced the budding socialist movement, inspiring anarchist theorists such as Mikhail Bakunin who modified Proudhon's ideas, as well as antagonizing theorists like Karl Marx.

Frédéric Bastiat – property is value

Frédéric Bastiat's main treatise on property can be found in chapter 8 of his book ''Economic Harmonies'' (1850). In a radical departure from traditional property theory, he defines property not as a physical object, but rather as a relationship between people with respect to an object. Thus, saying one owns a glass of water is merely verbal shorthand for ''I may justly gift or trade this water to another person''. In essence, what one owns is not the object but the value of the object. By "value," Bastiat apparently means ''market value''; he emphasizes that this is quite different from utility. ''"In our relations with one another, we are not owners of the utility of things, but of their value, and value is the appraisal made of reciprocal services."''

Strongly disputing Proudhon's equality-based argument, Bastiat theorizes that, as a result of technological progress and the division of labor, the stock of communal wealth increases over time; that the hours of work an unskilled laborer expends to buy e.g. 100 liters of wheat decreases over time, thus amounting to "gratis" satisfaction. Thus, private property continually destroys itself, becoming transformed into communal wealth. The increasing proportion of communal wealth to private property results in a tendency toward equality of mankind. ''"Since the human race started from the point of greatest poverty, that is, from the point where there were the most obstacles to be overcome, it is clear that all that has been gained from one era to the next has been due to the spirit of property."''

This transformation of private property into the communal domain, Bastiat points out, does not imply that private property will ever totally disappear. This is because man, as he progresses, continually invents new and more sophisticated needs and desires.

Contemporary views

Among contemporary political thinkers who believe that natural persons enjoy rights to own property and to enter into contracts, there are two views about John Locke. On the one hand there are ardent Locke admirers, such as W.H. Hutt (1956), who praised Locke for laying down the "quintessence of individualism." On the other hand, there are those such as Richard Pipes who think that Locke's arguments are weak, and that undue reliance thereon has weakened the cause of individualism in recent times. Pipes has written that Locke's work "marked a regression because it rested on the concept of Natural Law" rather than upon Harrington's sociological framework.

Hernando de Soto has argued that an important characteristic of capitalist market economy is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system where ownership and transactions are clearly recorded. These property rights and the whole formal system of property make possible:

Greater independence for individuals from local community arrangements to protect their assets;

Clear, provable, and protectable ownership;

The standardization and integration of property rules and property information in the country as a whole;

Increased trust arising from a greater certainty of punishment for cheating in economic transactions;

More formal and complex written statements of ownership that permit the easier assumption of shared risk and ownership in companies, and insurance against risk;

Greater availability of loans for new projects, since more things could be used as collateral for the loans;

Easier access to and more reliable information regarding such things as credit history and the worth of assets;

Increased fungibility, standardization and transferability of statements documenting the ownership of property, which paves the way for structures such as national markets for companies and the easy transportation of property through complex networks of individuals and other entities;

Greater protection of biodiversity due to minimizing of shifting agriculture practices.

All of the above enhance economic growth.

Types of property

Most legal systems distinguish different types (immovable property, estate in land, real estate, real property) of property, especially between land and all other forms of property—goods and chattels, movable property or personal property. They often distinguish tangible and intangible property (see below).

One categorization scheme specifies three species of property: land, improvements (immovable man-made things), and personal property (movable man-made things).

In common law, real property (immovable property) is the combination of interests in land and improvements thereto, and personal property is interest in movable property.

Real property rights are rights relating to the land. These rights include ownership and usage. Owners can grant rights to persons and entities in the form of leases, licenses and easements.

Later, with the development of more complex forms of non-tangible property, personal property was divided into tangible property (such as cars and clothing) and intangible property (such as financial instruments, including stocks and bonds, and intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks).

What can be property?

The two major justifications given for original property, or homesteading, are effort and scarcity. John Locke emphasized effort, "mixing your labor" with an object, or clearing and cultivating virgin land. Benjamin Tucker preferred to look at the telos of property, i.e. What is the purpose of property? His answer: to solve the scarcity problem. Only when items are relatively scarce with respect to people's desires do they become property. For example, hunter-gatherers did not consider land to be property, since there was no shortage of land. Agrarian societies later made arable land property, as it was scarce. For something to be economically scarce, it must necessarily have the ''exclusivity property'' - that use by one person excludes others from using it. These two justifications lead to different conclusions on what can be property. Intellectual property - non-corporeal things like ideas, plans, orderings and arrangements (musical compositions, novels, computer programs) - are generally considered valid property to those who support an effort justification, but invalid to those who support a scarcity justification, since they don't have the exclusivity property (however they may still support other 'intellectual property'-laws such as Copyright, as long as these are a subject of contract instead of government arbitration). Thus even ardent propertarians may disagree about IP. By either standard, one's body is one's property.

From some anarchist points of view, the validity of property depends on whether the "property right" requires enforcement by the state. Different forms of "property" require different amounts of enforcement: intellectual property requires a great deal of state intervention to enforce, ownership of distant physical property requires quite a lot, ownership of carried objects requires very little, while ownership of one's own body requires absolutely no state intervention.

Many things have existed that did not have an owner, sometimes called the commons. The term "commons," however, is also often used to mean something quite different: "general collective ownership" - i.e. common ownership. Also, the same term is sometimes used by statists to mean government-owned property that the general public is allowed to access (public property). Law in all societies has tended to develop towards reducing the number of things not having clear owners. Supporters of property rights argue that this enables better protection of scarce resources, due to the tragedy of the commons, while critics argue that it leads to the 'exploitation' of those resources for personal gain and that it hinders taking advantage of potential network effects. These arguments have differing validity for different types of "property"—things that are not scarce are, for instance, not subject to the tragedy of the commons. Some apparent critics advocate general collective ownership rather than ownerlessness.

Things that do not have owners include: ideas (except for intellectual property), seawater (which is, however, protected by anti-pollution laws), parts of the seafloor (see the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea for restrictions), gases in Earth's atmosphere, animals in the wild (though there may be restrictions on hunting etc. -- and in some legal systems, such as that of New York, they are actually treated as government property), celestial bodies and outer space, and land in Antarctica.

The nature of children under the age of majority is another contested issue here. In ancient societies children were generally considered the property of their parents. Children in most modern societies theoretically own their own bodies but are not considered competent to exercise their rights, and their parents or guardians are given most of the actual rights of control over them.

Questions regarding the nature of ownership of the body also come up in the issue of abortion, drugs and euthanasia.

In many ancient legal systems (e.g. early Roman law), religious sites (e.g. temples) were considered property of the God or gods they were devoted to. However, religious pluralism makes it more convenient to have religious sites owned by the religious body that runs them.

Intellectual property and air (airspace, no-fly zone, pollution laws, which can include tradeable emissions rights) can be property in some senses of the word.

Rights of use as property

Ownership of land can be held separately from the ownership of rights over that land, including sporting rights, mineral rights, development rights, air rights, and such other rights as may be worth segregating from simple land ownership.

Who can be an owner?

Ownership laws may vary widely among countries depending on the nature of the property of interest (e.g. firearms, real property, personal property, animals). Persons can own property directly. In most societies legal entities, such as corporations, trusts and nations (or governments) own property.

In the Inca empire, the dead emperors, who were considered gods, still controlled property after death.

Whether and to what extent the state may interfere with property

Under United States law the principal limitations on whether and the extent to which the State may interfere with property rights are set by the Constitution. The "Takings" clause requires that the government (whether state or federal—for the 14th Amendment's due process clause imposes the 5th Amendment's takings clause on state governments) may take private property only for a public purpose, after exercising due process of law, and upon making "just compensation." If an interest is not deemed a "property" right, or the conduct is merely an intentional tort, these limitations do not apply and the doctrine of sovereign immunity precludes relief. Moreover, if the interference does not almost completely make the property valueless, the interference will not be deemed a taking but instead a mere regulation of use. On the other hand, some governmental regulations of property use have been deemed so severe that they have been considered "regulatory takings." Moreover, conduct sometimes deemed only a nuisance or other tort has been held a taking of property where the conduct was sufficiently persistent and severe.

See also

Allemansrätten

Anarchism

Buying agent

Capitalism

Communism

Homestead principle

Immovable Property

Inclusive Democracy

International Property Rights Index

Libertarianism

Lien

Off plan

Ownership society

Patrimony

Personal property

Propertarian

Property is theft

Property law

Property rights (economics)

Labor theory of property

Socialism

Sovereignty

Property giving (legal)

Charity

Essenes

Gift

Kibbutz

Monasticism

Tithe, Zakat (modern sense)

Property taking (legal)

Adverse possession

Confiscation

Eminent domain

Fine

Jizya

Nationalization

Regulatory fees and costs

Search and seizure

Tariffs

Tax

Turf and twig (historical)

Tithe, Zakat (historical sense)

Zoning restrictions

RS 2477

Property taking (illegal)

Theft

Kleptocracy

Property of either digital or virtual form

Emerging Virtual Institutions

Property economists

Armen Alchian

Ronald Coase

Hernando de Soto

References

Bibliography

Frédéric Bastiat, 1850. ''Economic Harmonies.'' W. Hayden Boyers, trans.; George B. de Huszar, ed. Liberty Fund.

Dean Russell, "The Law"'', 1850.

Tom Bethell, 1998. ''The Noblest Triumph: Property and Prosperity through the Ages''. New York: St. Martin's Press.

William Blackstone, 1765-69. ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'', 4 vols. Oxford Univ. Press. Especially Books the Second and Third.

Hernando De Soto, 1989. ''The Other Path''. Harper & Row.

Hernando De Soto and Francis Cheneval, 2006. ''Realizing Property Rights''. Ruffer & Rub.

Ellickson, Robert, 1993, "", ''Yale Law Journal 102'': 1315-1400.

Fruehwald, Edwin, A Biological Basis of Rights, 19 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal 195 (2010).

Mckay, John P., 2004, "A History of World Societies". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company

Richard Pipes, 1999. ''Property and Freedom''.

Ankerl, Guy, 1978, "Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism: Distributive Justice in a Competitite Society." Cambridge MA, ISBN0-87073-938-7.

External links and references

"Right to Private Property", Tibor Machan, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Category:Economic anthropology Category:Property law

ang:Ǣht ar:ملكية خاصة br:Perc'henniezh bg:Собственост cs:Vlastnictví de:Eigentum et:Omand es:Propiedad eo:Posedo fr:Propriété ko:재산권 hi:सम्पत्ति hr:Pravo vlasništva io:Proprietajo id:Properti is:Eignarréttur it:Proprietà (diritto) he:רכוש lv:Īpašums lt:Nuosavybė hu:Tulajdonjog nl:Eigendom ja:財産権 pl:Mienie pt:Propriedade (direito) ru:Имущество scn:Pussidenti simple:Property th:ทรัพย์สิน tr:Mülkiyet hakkı uk:Майно ur:جائیداد vi:Tài sản yi:אייגנטום zh:財產權

name	Amy Adams
birthname	Amy Lou Adams
birth date	August 20, 1974
birth place	Vicenza, Italy
occupation	ActressSinger
yearsactive	1999–present
domesticpartner	Darren Le Gallo (2002–present; 1 child) }}

Amy Lou Adams (born August 20, 1974) is an American actress and singer. Adams began her performing career on stage in dinner theaters before making her screen debut in the 1999 black comedy film ''Drop Dead Gorgeous''. After a series of television guest appearances and roles in B movies, she landed the role of Brenda Strong in 2002's ''Catch Me If You Can'', but her breakthrough role was in the 2005 independent film ''Junebug'', playing Ashley Johnsten, for which she received critical acclaim and an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.

Adams subsequently starred in Disney's 2007 film ''Enchanted'', a critical and commercial success, and received a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance as Princess Giselle. She received her second Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations the following year for her role as a young nun, Sister James, in ''Doubt''. Though she has appeared in a range of dramatic and comedic roles, Adams has gained a reputation for playing characters with cheerful and sunny dispositions. Adams starred in ''Sunshine Cleaning'' with Emily Blunt and Alan Arkin, and the following year appeared as Amelia Earhart in ''Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian''. She appeared in ''Julie & Julia'' in 2009 portraying writer Julie Powell followed by ''Leap Year'' in 2010. Her recent role as Charlene Fleming in ''The Fighter'' earned Adams her third Academy Award nomination, her third Golden Globe Award, second BAFTA Award, and fifth Screen Actors Guild Award nominations.

Life and career

1974–1994: Early life

Adams was born in Vicenza, Italy, the fourth of seven children of American parents Kathryn (née Hicken) and Richard Adams. She has four brothers and two sisters. Her father, a US serviceman, was stationed at Caserma Ederle at the time of her birth, and took the family from base to base before settling in Castle Rock, Colorado, when she was eight or nine years old. Thereafter, her father sang professionally in restaurants, while her mother was a semi-professional bodybuilder. Adams was raised as a Mormon, although her family left the church after her parents' divorce when she was 11 years old. She said her religious upbringing "... instilled in me a value system I still hold true. The basic 'Do unto others...', that was what was hammered into me. And love."

Throughout her years at Douglas County High School, she sang in the school choir and trained as an apprentice at a local dance company with ambitions of becoming a ballerina. Her parents had hoped that she would continue her athletic training, which she gave up to pursue dance, as it would have given her a chance to obtain a college scholarship. Adams later reflected on her decision not to go to college: "I wasn't one of those people who enjoyed being in school. I regret not getting an education, though." After graduating from high school, she moved to Atlanta with her mother. Deciding that she was not gifted enough to be a professional ballerina, she entered musical theater, which she found was "much better suited to [her] personality". She said that ballet was "too disciplined and too restrained and I was always told off in the chorus lines" and her body at the time was "just wrecked from dancing all these years." Upon turning 18, Adams supported herself by working as a greeter at a Gap store while performing in community theater. For a few weeks after graduating high school, she took her first full-time job as a hostess at Hooters, a fact that became her "entire press career" for a while. Adams left the job three weeks later after having saved enough money to buy her first car. She admitted: "... there was definitely an innocence to my interpretation of what Hooters was about. Though I did learn, quickly, that short shorts and beer don't mix!"

1995–2004: Career beginnings

She began working professionally as a dancer at Boulder's Dinner Theatre and Country Dinner Playhouse. There, she was spotted by a Minneapolis dinner theater director, Michael Brindisi, in 1995. Adams relocated to Chanhassen, Minnesota, and worked at the Chanhassen Dinner Theatres for the next three years. While she was off work nursing a pulled muscle, she auditioned for the satirical 1999 comedy ''Drop Dead Gorgeous'', which was being filmed in Minnesota, and was cast in her first film role. Persuaded by her ''Drop Dead Gorgeous'' co-star Kirstie Alley, Adams moved to Los Angeles, California, in January 1999. Describing her first year there as her "dark year" and "bleak", she recalled that she would "pine for that time" at Chanhassen because she "really loved that security and schedule", and said, "The people I worked with there were also a great family to me." Shortly after arriving in Los Angeles, she was cast in Fox Network's television series spin-off of ''Cruel Intentions'', ''Manchester Prep'', in the role of Kathryn Merteuil. The series did not live up to the network's expectations and following numerous script revisions and two production shutdowns, it was canceled. The filmed episodes were then re-edited to be released as the direct-to-video film, ''Cruel Intentions 2''.

From 2000 to 2002, Adams appeared in a series of small films like ''Psycho Beach Party'' while guest-starring on television series such as ''That '70s Show'', ''Charmed'', ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'', ''Smallville'' and ''The West Wing''. She then appeared in Steven Spielberg's ''Catch Me If You Can'' as Brenda Strong, a candy-striper with whom Frank Abagnale, Jr. (Leonardo DiCaprio) falls in love. It was, in Spielberg's words, "the part that should have launched her career" but she was unemployed for a year after that. However, Adams said, "It was the first time I knew I could act at that level with those people. To be believed in by Steven Spielberg... it was a huge confidence booster." In 2004, she starred in ''The Last Run'' as well as voicing characters on the animated television series ''King of the Hill''. She was also cast as a regular in the television series, ''Dr. Vegas'', in the role of Alice Doherty but was later fired after a contract dispute.

2005–2007: Critical success and breakthrough

Prior to leaving ''Dr. Vegas'', she had received the script for the low-budget independent film ''Junebug'' and auditioned for the role of Ashley Johnsten, a young, cheerful and talkative pregnant woman. Director Phil Morrison explains his decision to cast Adams: "Lots of people looked at Ashley and thought, 'What's the sorrow she's masking?' To me, the fact that Amy didn't approach it from the angle of 'What's she covering up?' was key." The film was shot in 21 days in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. During that time, Adams turned 30 and was worried about her film career: "I thought maybe I should move to New York, maybe I should do something else. It wasn't that I was quitting or making a dramatic statement. It was more like maybe this just wasn't a good fit." On the experience of making ''Junebug'', Adams said, "It was really empowering. At the end of the summer I was unemployed but I was happy and I was proud. I was like, you know what, I'm done with being pushed around." ''Junebug'' premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival with Adams winning a Special Jury Prize for her performance.

After the theatrical release of ''The Wedding Date'', in which Adams appeared alongside Debra Messing and Dermot Mulroney, ''Junebug'' was released in theaters by Sony Pictures Classics. Adams earned critical accolades for her work in ''Junebug''; Carina Chocano of ''Los Angeles Times'' noted, "Adams' performance in a role that could have easily devolved into caricature is complex and nuanced." Joe Leydon of ''Variety'' commented, "Partly due to her character's generosity of spirit, but mostly due to her own charisma, Adams dominates pic with her appealing portrayal of a nonjudgmental optimist savvy enough to recognize the shortcomings of others, but sweet enough to offer encouragement, not condemnation". She received several awards for Best Supporting Actress including the National Society of Film Critics award and the Independent Spirit Award. She was also nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award and an Academy Award. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences invited Adams to become a member in 2006.

Although ''Junebug'' had a limited audience, Adams' critically acclaimed performance in the film helped to increase interest in her acting career. Adams went on to appear in films like ''Standing Still'' and ''Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby'', and played the recurring guest role of Katy on the television series ''The Office''. After providing the voice for Polly Purebred in Walt Disney Pictures' ''Underdog'', Adams starred in Disney's 2007 big-budget animated/live-action feature film, ''Enchanted''. The film, which co-stars Patrick Dempsey, Idina Menzel, Susan Sarandon and James Marsden, revolves around Giselle, who is forced from her 2D-animated world to real-life New York City. Adams was amongst 300 or so actresses who auditioned for the role of Giselle, but she stood out to director Kevin Lima because her "commitment to the character, her ability to escape into the character's being without ever judging the character was overwhelming".

''Enchanted'' was a commercial success, grossing more than $340 million worldwide. Her performance was well received by the critics, with Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' describing ''Enchanted'' as a star-making vehicle for Adams the way ''Mary Poppins'' was for Julie Andrews. Roger Ebert of ''Chicago Sun-Times'' commented that Adams was "fresh and winning", while Wesley Morris of ''The Boston Globe'' stated that she "demonstrates a real performer's ingenuity for comic timing and physical eloquence". Adams garnered a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, a Critics' Choice Award nomination for Best Actress, and the Saturn Award for Best Actress. Three of the film's songs were nominated for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards. Adams performed one of the songs, "Happy Working Song", live on stage during the Oscar ceremony. "That's How You Know", originally performed by Adams in the film, was sung by Kristin Chenoweth at the ceremony. In an interview, Adams remarked that the song was "perfect" for Chenoweth since Chenoweth "was a huge inspiration for how [she] approached Giselle".

The success of ''Enchanted'' increased Adams' media exposure during the 2007–08 film awards season. As well as appearing on the covers of ''Interview'', ''Elle'' and the Hollywood issue of ''Vanity Fair'', which named her as one of the "10 fresh faces of 2008", Adams hosted the seventh episode of the 33rd season of ''Saturday Night Live'' in March 2008. In the episode, she played various characters, including Heidi Klum, as well as singing "What is this Feeling" from ''Wicked'' in a mock battle with ''SNL'' cast member Kristen Wiig during the opening monologue. Adams appeared in ''Charlie Wilson's War'', co-starring with Tom Hanks, Julia Roberts and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Adams portrayed Bonnie Bach, the title character's administrative assistant. On the experience of making the film, Adams said, "It was so much fun. Just to be on that set and learn from these people and get to watch Philip Seymour Hoffman and Tom Hanks do these amazing scenes together, directed by Mike Nichols, it was for me like going to school." Adams' next project was ''Sunshine Cleaning'' playing a single mother who starts her own crime scene clean-up business in order to make enough money to send her son to a private school. The film premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival and received mixed reviews. When it received a limited theatrical release in March 2009, it was generally well-received. Mick LaSalle of ''San Francisco Chronicle'' gave the film a positive review, saying: "The play of emotion on Amy Adams' face is the main reason to see ''Sunshine Cleaning''."

2008–present

Her first theatrically released film of 2008 was the 1939-set film ''Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day'', in which she plays Delysia Lafosse, an aspiring American actress living in London whose life is changed after meeting a governess named Miss Pettigrew, played by Frances McDormand. While the film received generally favorable reviews, Adams' role was noted to be similar to her joyful and naïve characters in ''Junebug'' and ''Enchanted''. Carina Chocano of ''Los Angeles Times'' stated that "Adams is amazingly adept at playing smart playing dumb". Similarly, Kirk Honeycutt of ''The Hollywood Reporter'' wrote that "Adams more or less reprises her princess from ''Enchanted'', only with a beguiling touch of ditzy naughtiness". When asked whether she is in danger of being typecast, Adams responded, "Not at this point... Right now I'm just doing what I enjoy and I've done some different films, I've done some different types of roles. I've done drama this year, we had a film at Sundance (''Sunshine Cleaning''), but I enjoy playing upbeat characters, I really do because you take your characters home with you whether you intend to or not." In another interview, Adams said, "I think I just respond to those kinds of characters... They're so layered, and I love the fact that they've made this choice to be joyful... I really identify with that sense of hope." She also noted that before dyeing her naturally blonde hair red, she mostly played the role of "the bitchy girl".

In late 2008, Adams starred in ''Doubt'', an adaptation of John Patrick Shanley's play of the same name, as the young and innocent Sister James alongside Meryl Streep, Philip Seymour Hoffman and Viola Davis. After being informed of the project by her ''Sunshine Cleaning'' co-star, Emily Blunt, Adams pursued the role of Sister James but was told that it had already been offered to another actor. Shanley eventually cast Adams in the role because "she's got this Ingrid Bergman thing going on, this luminosity. You see a good person struggling in this complicated world. She's fiercely intelligent but has this peculiar innocence about her. She has a beautiful face of light." On acting alongside Streep and Hoffman, Adams revealed that there was "a sense of uncertainty, a sense of doubt, a sense of wanting to please these amazing actors". The film was well-received by the critics, while Adams' role was noted to be the "least-showy" among the four major parts. Though her performance was criticized by Manohla Dargis of ''The New York Times'' as "unsteady", Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' commented that "Adams does all anyone could with the role of a nice young nun." Mick LaSalle of ''San Francisco Chronicle'' wrote: "Adams provides one of the film's singular advantages. She takes the role of Sister James, which onstage seemed little more than a sounding board for Sister Aloysius, and turns the young nun into someone quite specific and lovely." Adams was nominated for Best Supporting Actress at the 81st Academy Awards, the 66th Golden Globe Awards, the 15th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and the 62nd British Academy Film Awards.

Adams' next role was Amelia Earhart in ''Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian'', opposite Ben Stiller. The film premiered over the 2009 Memorial Day weekend and topped the U.S. box office with a gross of $15.3 million on its first day, beating ''Terminator Salvation''. Although the film received "mixed or average reviews", Adams' performance was praised by most critics. Among those to give it a positive review, Michael Phillips of the ''Chicago Tribune'' thought that the film "radically improves whenever Amy Adams pops up as aviatrix Amelia Earhart... she's terrific —a sparkling screen presence"; and Owen Gleiberman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' wrote that "''Battle of the Smithsonian'' has plenty of life. But it's Adams who gives it zing." On the other hand, Ty Burr of ''The Boston Globe'' disliked the film, describing Adams' Earhart as "a flighty pill with no resemblance to the woman herself". While Lael Loewenstein of ''Variety'' thought Adams was "trying a bit too hard", Roger Ebert commented that she was the only actor who surpassed the material. The film's director, Shawn Levy, says of her: "I don't know that there's a better actress in her generation... I mean, there are other big female actors, but someone who can do ''Doubt'' and ''Julie & Julia'', and ''Night at the Museum 2'', all in the same year? Her range is almost unparalleled. It's a huge part of why we feel that this movie is even better than the first." That same year Adams starred in ''Julie & Julia'' alongside her ''Doubt'' co-star Meryl Streep as Julia Child and Adams as government secretary, Julie Powell, who decides to cook all of the recipes in Child's ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking''.

In 2010 Adams appeared in two films, the romantic comedy, ''Leap Year'', and as Charlene Fleming, the aggressive and gritty girlfriend of Irish Micky Ward, in ''The Fighter''. The Best Picture nominated-film received critical praise for its actors in which Adams starred alongside, Mark Wahlberg, Christian Bale and Melissa Leo. Adams received acclaim for her work and was praised for taking on such a volatile and aggressive character. This was noted to be Adams' definitive performance because of the rough edges and darkness mixed with authenticity that she brought to the role. For her role in ''The Fighter'', Adams was nominated for the BAFTA Award, Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, Golden Globe and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress losing the latter three awards to her co-star Leo.

Her upcoming projects include ''Daughter of the Queen of Sheba'', an adaptation of Adena Halpern's novel ''The Ten Best Days of My Life'', which she will also be producing, and in Disney's ''The Muppets'' alongside Jason Segel and The Muppets where she will be returning to singing. The film is set for release in Thanksgiving of 2011 and currently in production. Adams is also set to appear in the film ''On the Road'' opposite Viggo Mortensen. It was recently announced that Adams will portray Lois Lane opposite Henry Cavill as Superman in the upcoming comic book reboot film, Man of Steel. Produced by ''The Dark Knight'' director Christopher Nolan, director Zack Snyder said in statement, "We are excited to announce the casting of Amy Adams, one of the most versatile and respected actresses in films today. Amy has the talent to capture all of the qualities we love about Lois: smart, tough, funny, warm, ambitious and, of course, beautiful." She is also set to star in the upcoming Paul Thomas Anderson 2012 film, ''The Master'' as the wife of Philip Seymour Hoffman's character.

Personal life

As of April 2008, Adams is engaged to her boyfriend of six years, actor and artist Darren Le Gallo. She met Le Gallo in 2001 in an acting class. Since she was "really focused" in class, he initially thought that she was "like Tracy Flick in ''Election''." About a year after they met, Adams and Le Gallo acted together in a short film called ''Pennies'' over one weekend, during which they became better acquainted with each other. They started dating shortly thereafter. On May 15, 2010, Adams gave birth to the couple's first child, a girl named Aviana Olea Le Gallo.

Filmography

+ Feature films
! Year	! Film	! Role	Notes
1999		Leslie Miller
2000	''Psycho Beach Party''	Marvel Ann
2000	''''	Jill Royaltuber	Short film (as Amy Lou Adams)
2000	''Cruel Intentions 2''	Kathryn Merteuil
2002	''''	Doreen
2002		Alex
2002	''Serving Sara''	Kate
2002	''Catch Me If You Can''	Brenda Strong
2004	''''	Alexis
2005	''''	Amy
2005		Ashley Johnsten	Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress (tied with Michelle Williams for ''Brokeback Mountain'')Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressGotham Award for Breakthrough PerformanceIndependent Spirit Award for Best Supporting FemaleNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActressSan Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressSoutheastern Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressSundance Film Festival Special Jury Prize for ActingVancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressWashington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Academy Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting PerformanceNominated—Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion PictureNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated—St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Breakthrough Performance
2005	''Standing Still''	Elise
2006	''Pennies''	Charlotte Brown	Short film
2006	''Moonlight Serenade''	Chloe
2006	''Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby''	Susan
2006	''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny''	Gorgeous Woman	Cameo
2007	''''	Abby March
2007		'Sweet' Polly Purebred	(voice)
2007		Giselle	Saturn Award for Best ActressNominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressNominated—Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressNominated—Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best ActressNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated—Houston Film Critics Society Award for Best ActressNominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic PerformanceNominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Female PerformanceNominated—MTV Movie Award for Best KissNominated—National Movie Award for Best Performance - FemaleNominated—Satellite Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated—Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress: Comedy
2007	''Charlie Wilson's War''	Bonnie Bach
2008	''Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day''	Delysia Lafosse / Sarah Grubb
2008		Sister James	National Board of Review Award for Best Cast North Texas Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Academy Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting RoleNominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best CastNominated—Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion PictureNominated—Houston Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
2009	''Sunshine Cleaning''	Rose Lorkowski
2009	''Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian''	Amelia Earhart / Tess
2009	''Julie & Julia''	Julie Powell
2009	''Moonlight Serenade''	Chloe
2010		Anna
2010	''''	Charlene Fleming	Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best EnsembleBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Acting EnsembleCentral Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best EnsembleDetroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Academy Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Alliance of Women Film Journalists for Best Supporting ActressNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting RoleNominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Denver Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion PictureNominated—Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best EnsembleNominated—Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion PictureNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion PictureNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated—St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Utah Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated—Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Ensemble
2012		Jane Lee	Post-Production
2011	''''	Mary	Post-Production
2012	''''	Mary Sue Dodd	Filming
2013		Lois Lane	Filming

+ Television
! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
2000	''That '70s Show''	Kat Peterson	Episode ("Burning Down the House")
2000	''Charmed''	Maggie Murphy	Episode ("Murphy's Luck")
2000	''Zoe, Duncan, Jack & Jane''	Dinah	Episode ("Tall, Dark and Duncan's Boss")
2000		Rebecca 'Becka' Taylor	Episode ("The Good Doctor")
2000		Beth Maclay
2001		Jodi Melville	Episode ("Craving")
2002	''''	Cathy
2004	''King of the Hill''	Merilynn/Sunshine (voice)	Episode ("Cheer Factor")
2004	''King of the Hill''	Misty (voice)	Episode ("My Hair Lady")
2004	''Dr. Vegas''	Alice Doherty	Recurring
2005	'''' (US TV series)	Katy	Episodes ("Hot Girl", "The Fire" and "Booze Cruise")
2008	''Saturday Night Live''	Herself (Host)	Episode (8 March 2008)

+ Music
! Year	! Song	! Soundtrack	! Label
2007	"True Love's Kiss"		Walt Disney Records
2007	"Happy Working Song"		Walt Disney Records
2007	"That's How You Know"		Walt Disney Records
2008	"If I Didn't Care"	''Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day''	Varèse Sarabande

References

External links

Category:1974 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from Colorado Category:American female singers Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:Independent Spirit Award winners Category:Military brats Category:People from Douglas County, Colorado Category:People from Vicenza Category:Saturn Award winners Category:Sundance Film Festival award winners

ar:إيمي آدمز az:Emi Adams zh-min-nan:Amy Adams ca:Amy Adams cy:Amy Adams da:Amy Adams de:Amy Adams es:Amy Adams fa:امی آدامز fr:Amy Adams hi:एमी एडम्स hr:Amy Adams id:Amy Adams it:Amy Adams he:איימי אדמס lv:Eimija Adamsa hu:Amy Adams nl:Amy Adams ja:エイミー・アダムス no:Amy Adams pl:Amy Adams pt:Amy Adams ru:Адамс, Эми sq:Amy Adams simple:Amy Adams sl:Amy Adams sr:Ејми Адамс fi:Amy Adams sv:Amy Adams tl:Amy Adams te:ఏమీ ఆడమ్స్ th:เอมี่ อดัมส์ tr:Amy Adams uk:Емі Адамс zh:艾美·亞當斯